SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
While the sociological perspective provides us with a unique vantage point from which to observe our social world, theory helps us to meaningfully organize and explain the linkages between specific observations we make. A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related.
Sociologists are guided by one or more general frameworks, or theoretical paradigms. A theoretical paradigm provides a basic image of society that guides thinking and research. There are three principal theoretical paradigms used by sociologists. Each one focuses the researcher's attention on particular types of questions about how society is organized, and on different explanations about why certain patterns are found in society.
The structural-functional paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. The two basic components of this paradigm are social structure, or a relatively stable pattern of social behavior, and social function, which refers to consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society. Early sociologists using this perspective included Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, and Emile Durkheim.
As sociology developed in the United States during the twentieth century, Robert Merton further applied and developed the thinking of these early social scientists. Merton differentiated between manifest functions, or consequences of social structure both recognized and intended, and latent functions, which are unrecognized and unintended consequences of social structure. There may be undesirable effects on the operation of society, or social dysfunctions.
In critically evaluating this paradigm, it is pointed out that it is a conservative approach to the study of society which tends to ignore tension and conflict in social systems.
The social-conflict paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change. Social differences, rather than social integration, are the focus using this paradigm. Educational achievement is discussed to illustrate the unequal distribution of power and privilege.
Critical evaluation of this paradigm raises concern that social unity is ignored, and that in focusing on change, objectivity may be lost.
The structural-functional and social-conflict paradigms focus on a macro-level orientation, meaning focus on broad social structures that shape society as a whole. An alternative approach is to take a micro-level orientation, meaning a focus on social interaction in specific situations. The symbolic-interaction paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals. People are seen as interacting in terms of shared symbols and meanings. This paradigm was greatly influenced by the work of Max Weber, a German sociologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the United States, during the twentieth century, the work of George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman (dramaturgical analysis), and George Homans and Peter Blau (social-exchange analysis) was instrumental in the development of this paradigm.
In critically analyzing this view it must be stressed that the focus is on how individuals personally experience society. This approach does not allow us to generalize findings to establish broad general patterns.
Each of the three paradigms provides a unique perspective for helping to develop our understanding of society.
Sports: Three Theoretical Paradigms in Action
The Functions of Sports: The structural-functional paradigm reveals many functional consequences that sports provide for society. For example, sports provide recreation and jobs. They encourage competition and the pursuit of success.
Sports and Conflict: The social-conflict paradigm provides an analysis of sports focusing on the social inequalities within sports at all levels of competition. Gender, racial, and social class inequalities are addressed and illustrated.
Sports as Interaction: The symbolic-interaction paradigm views sports as an ongoing process and not merely as some "system." The individual perceptions of specific participants concerning the reality as each experiences it becomes the focus.
The sociological perspective is enriched by the controversy and debate brought about through the application in research of these different paradigms.
| Theoritical Paradigm | Orientation | Image of Society | Core Questions |
|
Structural-Functional |
Macro level | A system of interrelated parts that is relatively stable because of widespread agreement on what is morally desirable; each part has particular function in society as a whole. | How is society integrated? What are the major parts?
How are these parts interrelated?
What are the consequences of each part for the overall operation of society? |
|
Social-Conflict |
Macro level | A system based on social inequality; each part of society benefits some categories of people more than others; social inequalities leads to conflict which, in turn, leads to social change | How is society divided? What are the major patterns of social inequality?
How do some categories of people try to protect their privileges?
How do other categories of people challenge the status quo? |
|
Symbolic-Interaction |
Micro level | An ongoing process of social interaction in specific setting based on symbolic communication; individual perceptions of reality are variable and changing. | How is society experienced? How do human beings interact to create, maintain, and change social patterns?
How do individuals try to shape the reality that others perceive?
How does individual behavior change from one situation to another? |
CULTURE refers to the total distinctive way of life or designs for living of any society. It encompasses learned behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideals characteristics of certain societies. (Weinstein, 1996)
According to English Anthropologist Edward B Taylor, culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
SOCIETY and CULTURE
Sociologists define society as a group of people occupying a geographical territory, with a common culture, and interacting with each other.
FUNCTIONALISTS consider society as a social system which has set of components related to one another in a more or less stable fashion through a period of time. The family, religion, economy, education, and the state are the major social institutions. For society to work efficiently, there must be balance or equilibrium among the various social institutions. Change in any of the social institutions will affect other parts of society.
CONFLICT THEORISTS analyze society based on conflict and power. Wealth, power, and prestige are tight and dominated by the elite and the rich. The poor or lower class are exploited by the dominant elite, resulting conflict for scarce resources.
According to Zanden, the functionalist and conflict theory approaches complement each other. Functionalism finds difficulties in explaining history and social change while the conflict theory with the aspects of consensus, integration and stability. A number of sociologist support the view that functionalists and conflict theories are simply studying two aspects of the same reality as consensus and conflict are paramount features of social life.
LANGUAGE and CULTURE
Language refers to the systematized usage of speech and hearing to convey, communicate, or express feelings and ideas. (Eshelman and Cashion, 1983)
It helps determine the cultural practices and how to organize the perception about the world. Also, it is an integral part of culture, and human culture cannot exist without it. All societies have language. It enables people to transcend time and space.
UNIVERSAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
1. Culture is LEARNED.
2. Culture is TRANSMITTED.
3. Culture is SOCIAL, COLLECTIVE and LEARNED.
4. Culture is IDEATIONAL.
5. Culture is GRATIFYING.
6. Culture is ADAPTIVE.
7. Culture is an INTEGRATED WHOLE.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
Kendall (2004) the cultural toolbox has two major aspects: the material culture (refers to the concrete and tangible objects that human creates, use, and share, serving as buffers against the various elements in the environment.) and nonmaterial culture (consists of knowledge, social norms, beliefs, and sanctions which are abstract and intangible creations that influence human behavior.)
KNOWLEDGE: it is the total range of what has been learned or perceived as true.
Natural: accumulated facts about the natural world (biological and physical)
Supernatural: perceptions about Gods, demons, angels and natural beings which possess supernatural powers.
Technical: dealing with practical problems like methods in acquiring food, dealing with diseases etc.
Magical: perceptions about methods of influencing supernatural events by manipulating certain laws of nature.
SOCIAL NORMS: define the proper ways of behaving for a number of situations. It pertains to society’s standards of propriety, morality, ethics, and legality.
FOLKWAYS: CKA the customs, traditions, and conventions of society. They are the general rules, customary and habitual ways, and patterns of expected behavior within the society where they are followed, without much thought given to the matter. It has great mass of usage of all degrees of importance, covering all interests in life, embodying a life philosophy, and forming a character. (Sumner, 1906).
MORES: special folkways which are important to the welfare of the people and their values. It is based on ethical and moral values which are strongly emphasized. Observance of mores is compulsory. Most of the mores have been enacted into laws.
LAWS: formalized norms, enacted by people who are vested with government power and enforced by political and legal authorities designated by the government.
COLLECTIVE FORMS OF BEHAVIOR
Sanctions are a system of reward and punishment.
Values are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile.
Beliefs embody people’s perception of reality and may include the primitive ideas of the universe as well as the scientist’s empirical view of the world.
MATERIAL CULTURE and TECHNOLOGY
What are the effects of technology on man’s happiness and family life? Does high technology necessarily bring about a healthy and clean environment? Does it ensure the preservation of natural resources or employment and security?
ORGANIZATION OF CULTURE
Elements of Culture: symbols, knowledge, norms, values, and beliefs.
Sub-culture: smaller groups which develop distinctive norms, values, beliefs, special languages, and life-styles.
ETHNOCENTRISM
It is the tendency to regard one’s culture as the best and better than those of others. Literally, it means a belief that one’s group is at “the center of everything and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it.”
XENOCENTRISM
It is the rejection of one’s group or some part of their culture. This is the idea that what is foreign is best and that one’s lifestyle, products, or ideas are inferior to the others. (Eshleman and Cashion, 1983). It is centered on a product, an idea, or a lifestyle.
CULTURE SHOCK
It is a condition wherein a person loses the familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse and experiences unpleasant sensations or frustrations.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Culture is relative, and no culture practice is good or bad in itself. It is good if it integrates smoothly with the rest of the culture. This is the concept of cultural relativism which is an alternative perspective to ethnocentrism. The concept of cultural relativism states that the culture differs, so that cultural trait, act, or idea, has no meaning or function by itself but has meaning only within its cultural setting. A trait is good or bad only with reference to the culture in which it functions (Horton and Hunt, 1985)
CULTURAL UNIVERSALS
These are features and elements common to all culture. The similarities are in the general features of society, rather than the particular or specific traits. Murdock (1945) listed about 88 of these which include personal names, Family or household, Kin groups, Peer groups not based on family, Actions under self-control distinguished from those not under control, Affection expressed and felt, Age grades, Age statuses, Age terms, Law: rights and obligations, rules of membership, Moral sentiments, Distinguishing right and wrong, good and bad, Prestige inequalities.
DIVERSITY OF CULTURE
It refers to the wide range of differences in cultural patterns, ideas, beliefs, knowledge, forms of social organization, and practical responses to the environment.
Factors that promote cultural diversity:
1. Presence of social categories- sex, age, and religion.
2. The presence of subgroups.
3. Cultures differ in ideas and practical responses to the environment. Occupation and technology.
Cultural Variability: culture differs because of the great variety of solutions evolved by people from different societies. Aldous Huxley (in Farson, 1965) points out that the intellectual capabilities of human being changed over the last 20 or 30 thousand years.
Cultural Integration: cultures vary significantly in the consistency of their patterns of values, belief, and behavior. If the ideals to which people commit themselves are consistent with what they believe in and do as family members, teachers, or professionals, or when students are consistent with what they believe in and do while engaging in economic, political, and other activities, then their culture is one where there are no outstanding contradictions between people’s beliefs and their behavior.
Cultural Relativity: differences in culture also arise from the relativity of the standards that societies should uphold and use for evaluating truth, right, propriety, virtue, morality, legality, justice, and beauty and the means of adhering these. While there have been many attempts to establish universal, absolute standards of “right” and “wrong”, they have never been fully accepted by all people at the same historical period. Standards of propriety, morality, legality, aesthetic, rationality, and religious truth have been as varied and changeable as fashion, hairstyles, and body ornaments. Standards of behavior must thus be understood within the context of a society’s culture.
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